Counterfactual Thinking in People with and without Signs of Depression:

Contributions of Self-Report

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.15448/1980-8623.2025.1.47071

Keywords:

imaginative thinking, counterfactual thinking, depression, university students.

Abstract

The present study aimed to investigate the counterfactual thoughts of people with and without signs of depression, considering the structure, direction of change, target of change and lines of failure of reality. 145 university students participated, with an average age of 22.1 (SD = 4.84). The sample was divided into two groups, according to the scores in the Beck Depression Inventory: people without indications of depression and people with indications of depression. The materials used were the Beck Depression Inventory and a personal account of a negative or unexpected situation experienced in the last year. Participants with indications of depression described more reports referring to an emotional relationship, while participants without indications of depression described more reports related to academic situations. Participants with indications of depression tended to elaborate more counterfactual thoughts and the thoughts were mostly upward, addictive, self-referential and based on an action/inaction.

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Author Biographies

Juliana Sarantopoulos Faccioli , Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil.

Holds a degree in Psychology from the Federal University of São Carlos (2010), a master's degree in Psychology from the same university (2013), and a doctorate in Psychology from the same university. Has experience in the field of Psychology, with an emphasis on Perceptual and Cognitive Processes and Development, working mainly on the following topics: educational psychology, assessment techniques, counterfactual thinking, and imagination.

Patrícia Waltz Schelini, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

She holds a degree in Psychology from the Pontifical Catholic University of Campinas, a Master's degree in Psychology from the Pontifical Catholic University of Campinas (CNPq scholarship recipient), and a PhD in Psychology from the same university (FAPESP scholarship recipient). She completed a Post-Doctorate at the University of Minho (Portugal), under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Leandro da Silva Almeida. Currently, she is an Associate Professor 4 in the Department of Psychology at the Federal University of São Carlos, where she teaches undergraduate and graduate courses and conducts research on intelligence/cognition, metacognition, and imaginative thinking. She is a CNPq Productivity Fellow, was vice-coordinator and coordinator of the Research Working Group on Psychological Assessment of ANPEPP (2014-2018; 2019-2020), and is vice-coordinator of the Postgraduate Program in Psychology at UFSCar.

Anik Barham Setti , McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

I hold a degree in Psychology from the Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar). My undergraduate research focused on counterfactual thinking and its role in resolving interpersonal conflicts, and was supported by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP). During my undergraduate studies, I completed internships in language teaching, career counseling, parenting support, and university student support. I contributed to the organization of several scientific events and conducted outreach in the areas of public health and co-parenting. My research interests lie in health promotion, family, emotional regulation, and interpersonal conflict resolution.

Makilim Nunes Baptista , Pontifical Catholic University of Campinas (PUC-Campinas), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.

Holds a degree in Psychology from São Judas Tadeu University (1995), a master's degree in Psychology from the Pontifical Catholic University of Campinas (1997), a doctorate from the Department of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology at the Federal University of São Paulo (2001), and a post-doctorate from the University of Algarve (Portugal, 2022). Has over 25 years of clinical experience in Cognitive-Behavioral Psychotherapy. Currently a professor in the Stricto-Sensu Postgraduate Program in Psychology at the Pontifical Catholic University of Campinas (PUC-Campinas); President of the Brazilian Institute of Psychological Assessment - IBAP (2019-2021); Member of the Family Working Group of the Latin American Union of Psychology Entities (ULAPSI); Member of the World Network of Suicidologists. She has experience in the field of Psychology, with an emphasis on Psychological Assessment, Treatment, and Prevention.

Hugo Ferrari Cardoso, São Paulo State University (Unesp), Bauru, São Paulo, Brazil.

Holds a degree in Psychology (Bachelor's and Licentiate/2008 and Bachelor's/2009) from the Sacred Heart University; Postgraduate studies in Psychology with an emphasis on psychological assessment (Master's/2010; Doctorate/2013 and Post-doctorate/2015) from the São Francisco University. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor at the São Paulo State University "Júlio de Mesquita Filho" (UNESP) in the Psychology courses (Undergraduate and Postgraduate in Developmental and Learning Psychology - UNESP/FC); a CNPq research productivity fellow (PQ-Level 2); a member of the board of the Brazilian Institute of Psychological Assessment (IBAP - 2019-2021 and 2021-2023 terms) and a participant in the ANPEPP working group (GT Research in Psychological Assessment). Has experience in the field of Psychology, with an emphasis on the Construction and Validity of Tests, Scales and Other Psychological Measures, mainly working on the following topics: Psychological Assessment, Organizational and Work Psychology, and Career Guidance.

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Published

2025-12-19

How to Cite

Sarantopoulos Faccioli , J., Waltz Schelini, P., Barham Setti , A., Nunes Baptista , M., & Ferrari Cardoso, H. (2025). Counterfactual Thinking in People with and without Signs of Depression: : Contributions of Self-Report. Psico, 56(1), e47071. https://doi.org/10.15448/1980-8623.2025.1.47071

Issue

Vol. 56 No. 1 (2025): Single Volume - Continuous flow

Section

Psychological Assessment

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Copyright (c) 2025 Juliana Sarantopoulos Faccioli , Patrícia Waltz Schelini, Anik Barham Setti , Makilim Nunes Baptista , Hugo Ferrari Cardoso

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.