Language learning strategies by efL secondary school learners in Tanzania : an exploratory account

This is an exploratory account of English as a Foreign Language learning strategies used by Tanzanian secondary school students. Data were gathered from 70 EFL learners in two ordinary level secondary schools in Tanzania, through a questionnaire inventory adapted from Oxford (1990). The data were then analyzed and results tabulated. Findings show that the majority of the respondents were using social strategies and relatively few were using compensation and memory strategies. The most popular social strategy was plasticizing English with others. As for the affective strategies, the most popular was talking to someone else about how one feels about English. Among the memory strategies, using new English words in a sentence was most popular unlike in cognitive strategies where initiating conversations in English was the most popular learning strategy. It was concluded that EFL learners in Tanzania do not have learning one language learning strategy suitable for all learners.


The notion of language learning strategies
Learning strategies, as O'Malley and Chamot (1990) view them, are special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help themselves in comprehending, retaining or learning new information.These encompass processing of information of the target language to meet situational demands.Additionally, language learning strategies are valued as powerful learning tools that a learner uses to facilitate acquisition, storage, retrieval or use of information.These strategies, if used by the learner, can help an individual to learn and acquire new language easily.Ghani (2003) adds that learning strategies are learners' efforts in the struggle of learning new language.They are procedures employed by the learners in order to make their learning successful and possible.Language learning strategies are therefore specific to a learner with a particular language learning task.
According to Chamot (2005) language learning strategies are most often conscious, intentional and goal-driven, especially in the early stages of tackling unfamiliar language tasks.Once a language learning task becomes familiar then the strategy used to learn it is cognitively automated through repetition.Ghani (2003) also emphasizes that a learning strategy is often conscious and can be used intentionally to improve their progress in developing language skills in a new language and that the conscious and tailored use of strategies is related to language achievement and proficiency.Chamot (2005) highlights the importance of learning strategies positing that through language learning strategies scholars get insight on metacognitive, cognitive and affective processes a learner is involved in the language learning.Oxford (1990) also points out a number of factors that may influence the choice and degree of utilization of language learning strategies, which include cultural background, attitudes and beliefs towards the language, stage of learning, gender, motivation and language learning task.
Some scholars have studied learning strategies in relation to poor and good language learners.Samad and Singh (2010), for instance, noted that poor learners of language tended to use inappropriate language learning strategies, mostly memorization strategies but they failed to improve their learning because of their inappropriate language learning strategies.Bialystock (1981) adds that use of language learning strategies help the learner to cope with difficulties that prevent learners from attaining desired proficiency in the new language.Furthermore, Fewel (2010) contends that there is noticeable difference in proficiency level and the language learning strategies adopted by the learners of a new language.Oxford (1995), O'Malley and Chamot (1990) and Wharton (2000) add that differences between more and less proficient language learners were found in the number and range of strategies used, how the strategies were applied to the task, and in the appropriateness of the strategies for the task.Similarities on the use of particular patterns of strategies by different language learners from various studies like Fewell (2010), Bialystok (1981) and Oxford 1996) show that the use of language learning strategies is a significant factor independent from other factors such as learners' age, their motivation and personality type that can determine the success or failure in language proficiency.
Therefore, inability to employ appropriate language learning strategies results in poor language learning.The need to improve language learning requires appropriate language learning strategies.
Nonetheless, whatever relationship the strategies have to the type of learners or proficiency levels, it depends on how the strategies themselves have been classified, and most of these classifications have been grouped according to how directly they affect language learning.Scholars like Rubin (1985), O' Malley et al. (1985O' Malley et al. ( , 1990)), Stern (1975), Chamot et al. (1996) and Oxford (1990) classified language learning strategies differently.However, most of these classifications reflect more or less the same categorization.O' Malley et al. (1985Malley et al. ( , 1990) classified language learning strategies on the basis of first language research and Chamot et al.'s (1996) classification is data driven through think aloud analysis.Oxford (1990) classified language learning strategies into six main groups, namely, first, cognitive strategies, which are the mental strategies learners use to make sense of their learning like practicing, receiving and sending messages analyzing and reasoning, creating structure for input and output.The second group is memory strategies, which are those used for storage of information like creating mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing well and employing action.The third is compensation strategies that help learners to overcome knowledge gaps to continue the communication like guessing intelligently and overcoming limitations in speaking and writing.These three strategies belong to what they called indirect language learning strategies.
Indirect learning strategies include i) meta-cognitive strategies like centering, arranging, planning, and evaluating learning.Meta-cognitive strategies help learners to regulate, evaluate and prioritize their learning, ii) affective strategies that involve lowering anxiety, encouraging oneself and taking one's emotional state, and iii) social strategies , which include asking questions, cooperating with others and empathizing with others.Social strategies lead to increased interaction with the target language.
This study focused on the six groups of language learning strategies as classified by Oxford (1990) so as to replicate them in Tanzania's secondary students in their learning of English.

Studies on efL teaching and learning
Until in the mid 1970's the study on language learner's learning strategies as a significant and independent fact that can influence success or failure of language learning was still at an infant stage.Many studies dealt more on factors that affect a learner in the learning process like first language interference, cultural background, motivation, education, age and gender.
Early attempts on the learner language learning strategies as independent variables that affect language learning were done by Rubin (1975), Stern (1975) and Naiman et al. (1978), all focusing on the contribution of language learning strategies to the success of language learning.The shift to language learning strategies research surfaced due to the fact that learners were to

Original Article
Msuya, E. A. | Language learning strategies by efL ... have self-directed language learning which required skills that could be imparted to a learner to enable him or her to handle different language tasks during learning processes.The ability of using these strategies directly as tools for improving self-directed language learning proves that language learning strategies are practical and teachable component that learners can be imparted upon by language trainers to improve language learning.This fact distinguishes itself from the uncontrollable factors that influence language learning process of a learner like age, cultural background and the role of first language.
The adoption of language learning strategies by language learners has shown language proficiency differences between successful and unsuccessful learners is based on the extent of utilization of particular language learning strategies (Fewell, 2010).It has been argued that successful learners tend to use a wide range of strategies, normally cognitive strategy and metacognition, compared to unsuccessful learners, who use a limited number of strategies, usually memory strategies (Fewell, 2010).From the mid 1970's the research on language learning strategies focused on the way the utilization of these language learning strategies influences success or failure of language learning, linking language proficiency in particular.This, therefore, gives scholars, linguistic educationists, researchers and language practitioners an insight on the influence of language learning strategies on the language proficiency level.

efL in Tanzania
The situation of English language proficiency in Tanzania is explained in relation to different factors, including teachers' level of competence (Wilson & Komba, 2012), social background, lack of enough teaching and learning materials, with less focus on students learning strategies (Allen, 2008;Roy-Campbell & Qorro, 1997).Therefore, studies on language learning strategies as a factor for language learner individuality have hardly been done in the Tanzanian context.In that light, this study set out to investigate English language learning strategies used by Tanzanian Secondary Schools students in their struggles to gain proficiency of the language.
This study focused on six types of language learning strategies as classified by Oxford (1990), namely: memory, cognitive, meta-cognitive, affective, and social and compensation strategies.

MATerIALS ANd MeThodS
The study was carried out in two secondary schools: Chamanzi, in Temeke Municipal and at Marangu Teaching Practice Secondary school, in Moshi Rural District.The choice of these schools was purposively done.70 students (40 from Chamanzi and 30 from Marangu) were involved in the study.
Data were gathered using a questionnaire adapted from Oxford (1990) on students' language learning strategies.The questionnaire was divided into two parts: part one was about general information and linguistic knowledge, and part two comprised the six groups of strategies: cognitive, memory, meta-cognitive, social, affective, and compensation strategies.

Original Article
Msuya, E. A. | Language learning strategies by efL ...These strategies are reflected in six language skills, namely; pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, speaking, comprehension and reading tasks.Students were asked to indicate by ticking the strategies they were using in learning English.The data were entered into SPSS package and frequencies computed for each learning strategy as clustered in the six sub themes.

overall findings
Overall findings of differing extent of use of language learning strategies are summarized in Figure 1 below.Figure 1 above shows that social learning strategies predominated with an average of 50 out of 70 (71%) of the respondents indicating that they used the strategies that were related to social (interpersonal) aspects.This was followed by metacognition strategies with 44.3 (64%).The least used category of strategies was compensation, with 31 respondents (44%) indicating it as mostly used.Next to this category is a memory strategy with 35.7 (50%) indicating to be mostly underused.

Specific details of the strategies
Having presented and analyzed the generic overview of the findings in the six learning strategies, we now present in detail each of the six strategies.

Memory strategies
This category of strategies which, according to Nemati (2008), is primarily concerned with four sets (creating mental linkage, applying image and

Original Article
Msuya, E. A. | Language learning strategies by efL ... sound, reviewing well, and employing actions), showed different rates of use as summarized in Table 1 below.Table 1 above shows predominance of social or interpersonal language learning strategy in which learners attempt to use new English words in a sentence so as to remember them.This was indicated to be always and usually true by 52 out of 70 respondents (which is 74%).This was followed by using rhymes as an aid to remembering new words in English, with 49 (70%) respondents indicating it as their strategy.Thinking of relationships between what the learner already knows and new things she/he learns in English was the third in popularity, with 45 (64%) respondents.
The most unpopular strategy in this group of memory strategies, as Table 1 above shows, is connecting English language sounds with the image or picture of the word, which was favoured by 22 (31%) respondents.Ranking second in unpopularity is using flash cards to remember new words (by 25, which is 36%) of all respondents.
Generally, two things are worth noting with regard to the data in Table 1.First is that all except one (item 8) are concerned with the learning of English lexemes, or vocabulary learning.Second, the most popular strategies are those that are comparably more demanding cognitively.
Generally, the choice of the group of language learning strategies that are of cognitive nature by the learners in the current study was congruent with 'Depth of Processing Hypothesis', which states that the more cognitive energy a person exerts when manipulating and thinking about a word, the more likely it is that they will be able to recall and use it later (Craik & Tulving, 1975).In a study by Nemati (2009) that compared the impacts of teaching through memory strategies on experimental group comparison to control group, where students were taught the meaning of new vocabulary items through giving synonyms and mini-contexts it was found that the students of the experimental group outperformed the control group both in short-term and long-term scores, portrayed the superiority of memory strategies in short-term and long-term retention.Earlier on, Schmitt and

Original Article
Msuya, E. A. | Language learning strategies by efL ... Schmitt (1995) had commented that memory strategies, which they also qualified as richer in semantic processing, are more likely to enhance learning than shallower processes such as rote repetition.

Cognitive strategies
Defined as strategies that enable the learner to manipulate the language in such ways as through reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing information to develop stronger schemas, practicing in naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and sounds formally (Oxford, 2003), cognitive strategies were indicated to be used by EFL learners in the current study as summarized in Table 2. Table 2, on cognitive strategies, has data closely related to memory strategies.The table consists of 14 strategies, the most popular of which was writing notes, messages, letters, or reports in English by 50 (71%) of all 70 respondents.Ranking second is trying to find patterns in English and remembering a word by dividing it up into parts that one understands, both of which had 49 (70%) respondents each.The least popular strategies are two: trying to translate word-for-word and reading for pleasure with 12 (17%) and 19 (27%) respondents, respectively.
In terms of language skills involved, explicitly and implicitly, there is predominance of speaking (6 out of 14 items), followed by reading by 4 of 14 items two items of which were the most popular in the category.Writing had 3 items, one of which was the number 1 most popular strategy.There was only one item that involved listening skills.

Compensatory strategies
This set of strategies involves the learner guessing from the context in listening and reading; using synonyms and "talking around" the missing word to aid speaking and writing; and strictly for speaking, using gestures or pause words to help him/her make up for missing knowledge (Oxford, 2001).The current study learners' uses of compensatory strategies are summarized in Table 3 below.Table 3 above houses six compensation strategies.The second most popular, which was 'always true' and 'usually true' of 40 (57%) respondents, is making up new words if one does not know the right ones in English.This was preceded by using a word or phrase that means the same thing should one fail to think of English word.This had 49 (70%) of respondents.The least popular ones were use of gestures in case one fails to think of a word during conversation, and reading English without looking up every new word, with 15 (21%) and 24 (34%), respectively.
Generally, compensation strategies were dominated by productive skills (4 out of 6) rather than receptive skills (2 out of 6) and the majority of the productive skills had interpersonal rather than textual inclination.It is also among the interpersonal aspect that the most popular and the least popular compensation strategies are found.
It is worth noting here that scholars do not have a common stance with regard to compensatory strategies; Cohen (1998), for example, asserts that compensatory strategies that are used for speaking and writing -and he regards these as communication strategies-are intended only for language use and must in no way be considered language learning strategies.Conversely, Oxford (1990Oxford ( , 1999) ) contends that compensation strategies of any kind, even when they are used for language use, aid in language learning as well.After all, he argues, each instance of L2 use is an opportunity for more L2 learning.In Yau-hau Tse's (2011) study that compared language strategies by secondary and university students in Hong Kong revealed it was revealed that grades 12-13 students used memory strategies (medium use)

Original Article
Msuya, E. A. | Language learning strategies by efL ... while first year university students adopt compensation strategies (medium use) in learning English.Also, Rababah and Bulut (2008) investigated the compensatory strategies used in the oral discourse of second year students studying Arabic as a second language (ASL) in the Arabic Language Institute at King Saud University in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and found that that the subjects used a range of compensatory strategies in their oral production and that there were differences between the individual learners' strategies according to their native language.

Metacognitive strategies
Metacognitive strategies, which allow students to plan, control, and evaluate their language learning (Graham, 1997), were variously used by the learners in the current study as summarized in Table 4 below.According to table 4 above, there were nine strategies, the overwhelmingly popular of which was thinking about one's progress in the learning of English.This was indicated by 66 (94%) out of 70.Ranking second are planning one's schedule to set enough time to study English, and noticing one's mistakes and using the information to improve, each with 49 (70%) respondents.
Looking for people to talk with in English is an important trait of a good language learner in the interactive world.This strategy, together with looking for opportunities to read as much as possible in English had 45 respondents each indicating their usual and always learning strategy.
The least popular metacognitive strategy is having clear goals for improving one's English to which only 31 respondents indicated as their 'always' and 'usual' metacognitive strategy.These learners could be classified in the reflective personality category who would be preoccupied with reading accuracy and grammatical eloquences unlike the rest who might belong to the extrovert type who are normally involved with making linguistic gambling allowing for incidental learning via addressee/peer correction of the errors they commit.In Tanzanian context where English use is highly restricted, this latter category may end up losing in attaining English language proficiency.In addition, informal conversational English doesn't

Original Article
Msuya, E. A. | Language learning strategies by efL ... characterize our teaching and learning of the language.This state of affairs may also explain why only the strategy No. 1 in the serial numbering (not in popularity), which is looking for opportunities to use one's English, was not was not favoured by many respondents.Anderson (2002b), highlighting the primacy of metacognitive language learning strategies, posits that the ability to coordinate, organize, and make associations among the various strategies available is a major distinction between strong and weak second language learners.Additionally, Anderson (2002a) believes that "developing metacognitive awareness may also lead to the development of stronger cognitive skills" (p. 1).Further, Rasekh and Ranjbary (2003) sought to examine the effectiveness of metacognitive language learning strategies during which the learners were randomly assigned to a control and an experimental group.Both groups received instruction on vocabulary learning strategies through a 10-week period of instruction.However, only the experimental group received metacognitive strategy training during the course of the semester.The results of the study showed that explicit metacognitive strategy training has a significant positive effect on the vocabulary learning of EFL students.

Affective Strategies
Concerned with interests, attitudes, opinions, appreciations, values, and emotional sets of the learners (Caine, R. & Caine, G., 1991), affective strategies were also indicated to be used by the learners in the present study as summarized in Table 5 below.Table 5 above indicates the 6 language affective language learning strategies are those involving the learners' emotive aspects such as teaching, anxiety and attitude, all of which highly impact the ultimate attainment of proficiency of post-puberty learners of a second language.The most popular learning strategy was talking to someone about one's feeling while learning English with 58 respondents indicating it as always and usually true to them.In other words, these learners seek emotional support but also allow others to evaluate them with regard to their feelings in the learning of L2.Usually, the people they would talk to are those whose proficiency in English is perceived to be higher than their own.

Original Article
Msuya, E. A. | Language learning strategies by efL ... Ranking second is giving oneself a reward when one does well in English, which had a total of 48 respondents.Self-reward is a characteristic of adult learners and most of the reward is usually a self-praise for an achievement.These learners, thus, engage in inner dialogue within themselves during which one is involved in evaluating mental and linguistic executions and rewards oneself for doing correctly.
Self-awareness of one's tenseness and nervousness while using English ranked third with 46 respondents.This is yet another characteristic of postpuberty learners, who are aware of their fear and anxiety as they use a language they are not well conversant with.
The least popular affective strategy is trying to relax whenever one feels afraid of using English.This had only 23 respondents rating it always and usually true to them.In other words, these learners go beyond being aware of their fear and anxiety to managing those and thus putting themselves in being better communicants, and consequently better learners, than those who are only aware of their being nervous or anxious.Stevick (1980) once argued that " ... (language learning) success depends less on materials, techniques and linguistic analyses, and more on what goes on inside and between the people in the classroom" (p.4).Two years later, in his affective filter hypothesis, Krashen (1982) affirmed the existence of an internal barrier that interfered with second language acquisition when learners were anxious or bored.In other words, affective variables are a sine qua non condition for success in second language learning.
Empirical studies testify the claim above.Price (1991), for example, studied learners who, during an interview, reported debilitating anxiety caused by instructors who criticized their pronunciation or focused on classroom performance rather than learning.Earlier on, Bailey (1983) had kept a diary of her French classroom experience and noted that competitiveness and anxiety motivated her to work harder on some occasions (facilitating anxiety) and to avoid class on others (debilitating anxiety).Young (1990) researched on the language learners and found that teachers who used humour and created a friendly, supportive, and relaxed classroom atmosphere that encouraged risk-taking were most helpful in alleviating foreign language anxiety and facilitating learning.Furthermore, a series of interventions conducted by Moskowitz (1981Moskowitz ( , 1999) ) with high school second and foreign language students reported positive correlations between the use of humanistic exercises and students' attitudes towards language learning, their classmates, and themselves.Results of questionnaires administered to the teachers in this study also showed improved attitudes toward their classes and enhanced self-concept and self-awareness.More recently, Rossiter (2003) designed an intervention study to examine the effects of affective strategy instruction on measures of second language proficiency and of self-efficacy.The participants in this study were 31 adult intermediate-level ESL learners registered in a full-time ESL program in a post-secondary institution in Canada.Two classes participated in this study; one received 12 hours of affective strategy training, and the second served as a comparison group.The findings indicated that the learners perceived the affective strategy instruction to be most beneficial in classroom activities and for real life purposes.

Social strategies
These are strategies in which the students engage in order to face the opportunity to be exposed to the target language and practice his/her already gained knowledge (Burešová, 2007) and which, according to Oxford (1990), involves asking questions, cooperating with others and socializing with others.The respondents in the current study indicated to use these strategies, the frequencies of which are indicated in table 6 below.Table 6 shows that the learner asking a colleague for correction and practicing English with fellow students were the most popular, each with 54 respondents.These two, form the cornerstone of interactive strategies of learning a language with the latter using social engagements as an opportunity to practice English while the former exploits the opportunity to engage the advanced proficient in English to comment or evaluate the linguistic output of the learners.
The comparably least used social strategy was asking people to slow down their pace of speaking when the learner realizes they do not understand what is being said.The least use of the strategy might be explained by two possible factors: first, in Tanzanian EFL context, very few people who know English would be using it for interpersonal purposes, they would favour Kiswahili.Secondly, even if they chose to use English the majority being themselves learners, would tend to use the language in a pace that most of their interlocutors can cope with.
It is also worth noting here that the majority of the social strategies (serial numbers 2-5) are productive language skills where the learner is the main actor in speaking.The last item (s/n 6) involves learning the culture of English speakers while number one is about listening where one could only interrupt when one does not understand.
Emphasizing the importance of social language learning strategies, Hess and Laurel (1995) assert that "in fact, we spend our lives asking questions (p. 1) and Burešová (2007) added that for anyone to be able to speak about a conversation, there must be at least one question asked by one of the participants, then the talk can be complementary and it is not a monolog.Additionally, Čáp (2001) considers social learning strategies important for forming interpersonal relationships.

figure 1 :
figure 1: Overall Means of Learning Strategies Categories

Table 6 :
EFL Learners' Social Learning Strategies